Bright and Morning Star Essay

There are certain prevailing themes evident through the duration of the story, like race versus class, and religion versus faith; through these we can see the violence and terror that tear through Sue’s and Johnny Boy’s life and how they confront it. From the start of the story, it is evident that Sue loves her family and even though her and her sons have different beliefs she would do anything to protect them. Sue is a Christian woman, and has been since she was a little girl living and working on a farm learning the songs and meaning of the Lord through her mom. Her sons, however, are not swayed by her religious ideals and instead turn to the Communist Party as their faith, â€Å"She had sought to fill their eyes with her vision, but they would have none of it. And she had wept when they began to boast of the strength shed by a new and terrible vision,† (814). If they had listened to their mom and stuck with Christianity instead of Communism then none of the violence and terror would have been upon them, Sug would not be in jail, Johnny Boy would not have been tortured to death, and Sue need not have watched her sons be imprisoned and tortured then be killed herself. Over time though her beliefs start to change and she sees her sons’ point of view, â€Å"The past and the present would become mixed in her; while toiling under a strange star for a new freedom the old songs would slip from her lips with their beguiling sweetness,† (814). She too wants equality and is proud of her sons for standing up for what they believe in, but is also afraid for them, especially Johnny Boy who is willing to die to protect the Party and its members. During this time period, violence toward black people was common and terribly nasty especially in the South where lynching was common and often a group sport. Like many black people of this time, Sue distrusts most white people, and when hearing there is a leak in the Party she automatically points her finger at the white members. Johnny Boy on the other hand does not, â€Å"Mah, Ah done tol yuh a hundred times Ah can’t see white an Ah can’t see Black. Ah sees rich men an Ah sees po men,† (822). They are both somewhat naive, it is not white versus black and rich versus poor, but rather a combination of the two with shades of gray mixed in, like Reva demonstrates when she sneaks out to warn Sue of the danger coming after Johnny Boy. Of course during this time, almost all southern white folks saw themselves superior to blacks and had no problem distributing harsh punishments, like breaking Johnny Boy’s kneecaps with a crow bar and deafening him. The violence described is so real that their terror is tangible off the paper. By the end of the story, the violence and terror Sue and Johnny Boy had to endure is terribly surreal. Even though they may not believe wholly in the same things, the horror they both confronted came from a combination of race and their beliefs. Wright’s depiction of violence in his use of language is what constellates race, violence, and terror.

Meta-analysis

Meta-analysis was designed as a method of reducing the threats to validity that often arise as a result of small sample sizes. When sample sizes used for a particular experiment are too small, it becomes possible for errors to enter the data and cause it to become skewed or biased. Meta-analysis involves the survey and investigation of data from a number of related studies. Such analysis is usually advantageous in its ability to produce more accurate data. One of the problems that arise when conducting a review of studies comes from the methods chosen to analyze data. The usual methods of integrating research that has been previously done often prove unable to cope with the growing amounts of research with which some researchers have to deal. Meta-analysis helps eliminate this problem. It also delves into the quality of the research being evaluated, in order to reduce the problem of citing research without proper examination of the conclusions and the methods used to reach these. It also prescribes methods for researchers to weigh adequately all the evidence whether it is for or against their own preconceived ideas or preferences, thereby reducing the bias of research. Problems with internal validity arise as a result of such practices as non-randomization, small sample size, discontinuation of the studies by participants (drop-out), the occurrence of significant historical events during a study, lack of control groups, and the problem of extreme results versus the regression effect toward the mean (Losh, 2002). In order to improve the internal validity of research, meta-analysis covers a wide array of studies that serve to combat each of these problems in the following ways. Because meta-analysis deals with a large number of individual studies, problems regarding small sample size can be diminished as the number of participants within the study now becomes the aggregate of all those who participated in the individual studies. As a result, meta-analyses â€Å"have more power to detect small but clinically significant effects† (Davies & Crombie, n.d.). Biases in the data that arise from non-randomization and problems with lack of control groups can also be diminished because of the practices of meta-analysis experts in choosing carefully which studies to include in their research. When conducting this type of research, it becomes crucial to choose primary research that is â€Å"a complete, unbiased collection of original, high-quality studies that examine the same [†¦] question† (Davies & Crombie, n.d.). Researchers who adhere to this practice scrutinize the methodologies of the different studies and remove those that contain major contr ol and randomization flaws. The large number of studies used in meta-analysis also combats the problems or biases that may arise from such phenomena as regression toward the mean. When studies are done (or tests taken) it is often the case that a small percentage of participants score exceptionally high or low. It is often the case, too, that when/if retakes of these studies are done, these same exceptional scorers either increase or decrease their scores, taking them closer to the mean. With a large body of studies taken in meta-analysis, the effects of these exceptions and regressions can evened out, so that the study gives a more accurate and statistically valid picture of the problem/issue being examined. As external validity is related to the ability to generalize results across populations, though similar studies must be chosen for meta-analyses, the researcher may be careful to include ones that contain a wide variety of subject types. This will reduce the effects of population sensitization (familiarity with the processes of the test) as well as the likelihood of certain subject types to be (artificially) more inclined to one outcome or another based on the demographic of that particular group. The more inclusive the criteria for the participants, the more widely generalizable will the meta-analytic study become (Davies & Crombie, n.d.). References Davies, H.T.O. & I. K. Crombie. (n.d.). â€Å"What is meta-analysis?† Evidence-based Medicine.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Howard Medical Communications. 1(8). Losh, S. C. (2002). â€Å"Quasi-experiments, internal validity, and experiments II.† Methods of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Educational Research.   Florida State University. Retrieved on January 29, 2007 from http://edf5481-01.fa02.fsu.edu/Guide4.html   

Book Report on Silent Spring Essay

In the book ‘Silent spring’ written by Rachael Carson we find a picture of Carson’s deep concept about the connection between nature’s equilibrium and the web of life that has been ruined by the uncontrolled use of insecticides which in turn affected the healthy livelihood of this earth’s creatures. Furthermore, she tells the readers of substitute techniques of achieving the same ends. The title of the book is enough to make us understand that it was a hint of a spring season with no bird songs painting our atmosphere meaning that all birds had vanished due to misuse of pesticides. The book starts with a story of a town in America. Carson explains the town as being very beautiful and lively where the spring time is the most pleasant time of the year. However, this perfect scenario is soon destroyed as Carson tells â€Å"On the mornings that had once throbbed with the dawn chorus of robins, catbirds, doves, jays, wrens, and scores of other bird voices there was now no sound; only silence lay over the fields and woods and marsh†. This town has never really existed. Rather, it just portrays the present as well as future of other numerous towns of this world. In order to stay alive we require taking from all portion of the environment to grant us with our essentials and hence, comes the interrelation between us and the environment. To indicate mainly it is us who have contaminated our own home, the earth. Carson clearly states â€Å"They should not be called ‘insecticides’, but ‘biocides’† as they are harmful for every life on this planet. According to her the chemicals are being used in the wrong way and by the wrong people. The third chapter of Carson’s book explains in details the elixirs of death that is, what these chemicals such as DDT and arsenic are and how they eventually gain the magical powers of causing death by spreading through the entire food chain of our ecosystem and giving rise to many fatal diseases like cancer. We all know how significant water – a resource- to us is. Then we should also know â€Å"It is not possible to add pesticides to water anywhere without threatening the purity of water everywhere†. Chemicals are washed from land to bodies of water which seep into ground water – the source of public water supplies. Once in the water, chemicals combine with other chemicals that have either been washed or deliberately dumped into the water. Ultimately no one can guess what the synergism will be in the coming days. Our life is greatly dependant on the ecology of the soil. Carson states â€Å"We must not only be concerned with what is happening to the soil; we must wonder to what extent insecticides are absorbed from contaminated soils and introduced into plant tissues.†. Without the tiniest life that sustains inside it, the whole biogeochemical cycles are changed. Even if plants that have grown in the contaminated soil are removed, the soil will stay contaminated and continue to set birth to new contaminated plants. In Chapter 6 we come to know how the green segment of our earth connects all lives. Carson’s main focus was on the devastating change on life of animals linked to the destruction of weed and sage. Rachel Carson clarifies that it is an unnecessary chaos to promote massive insecticides spraying operations because this results in efficient killing of non-targeted plants and animals and inefficient killing of insects and pests. She points out that adequate research is need ed before performing such campaigns. â€Å"The early mornings are strangely silent where once they were filled with the beauty of bird song.† The disappearance of the birds has been linked back to usage of insecticides again because birds are dependant on insects and worms for food. Alternative cheaper solutions are given by Carson in Chapter 8. â€Å"If we would divert to constructive research even a small fraction of the money spent each year on the development of ever more toxic sprays, we could find ways to use less dangerous materials and to keep poisons out of our waterways.† – Carson says this when mainly salmon fish and other aquatic animals are killed in mass numbers through spraying of DDT in an attempt to destroy certain spruce budworms in Miramichi River. She tries to get across the fact that the aerial spraying campaigns to kill the gypsy moth in the northern states and the fire ant in the southern states were very much damaging, ineffective and also expensive. This incident had a chain reaction resulting in crop failure, hurting wildlife and also cattle products (such as milk) and vegetables were found having DDT and thus unhealthy for human consumption. Carson lets us know that people are a victim to daily chemical poisoning in even minute doses. She goes into the very details of domestic appliances and necessities. Carson talks about many things that don’t seem to be much of a danger on a daily basis to a regular person. Things such as bug sprays, lotions, paints and varnishes, and even a pocket-sized insecticide dispenser are brought up to help demonstrate the everyday risks we encounter. â€Å"Only yesterday mankind lived in fear of the scourges of smallpox, cholera, and plague†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Today we are concerned with a different kind of hazard that lurks in our environment—a hazard we ourselves have introduced into our world as our modern way of life has evolved.† According to Carson we have given rise to a new range of health problems because the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and everything else in our environment is polluted. As a result the total ecology of our human body is badly affected. Then she starts her discussion about what a cell is, how the organelle mitochondria inside our cells functions to produce energy and ends chapter 13 by informing us that radiations, and chemical poisoning affects this metabolism resulting in mutations. â€Å"The battle of living things against cancer began so long ago that its origin is lost in time.† She says that cancer causing agents had already existed in the nature but not to the extent of causing cancer to the living organisms which the humans have already exceeded that particular level via the chemicals already discussed above. Chemical control proponents overlook two key facts of nature. First, nature applies the most effective control of insects. Second, insects have an explosive capacity to reproduce once they have adapted to chemical control methods. Carson goes on and talks about human attempts to break the balance of nature. She gives example of the coyote, the deer predators, and insects. She talks about how at first the idea seemed to work, but in the end there was some kind of backfire that made every effort pointless. She believes that if people would just sit back and study what happens when nature takes care of itself, many of our problems would be solved. Through the years of chemical spraying against insects, their species have ditched the weak and reproduced the strongest to become more powerful. Chemicals had to be altered every month to overcome the resistance. â€Å"We stand now where two roads diverge. But unlike the roads in Robert Frost’s familiar poem, they are not equally fair†. In the last chapter Carson explains the alternate cheaper and effective methods to overcome the problems mentioned earlier. Carson says that biological controls are best of the two because they do not disrupt the equilibrium and system of nature. By using natural controls, such as predators, nothing in the environment is harmed. Rachel Carson has done a huge contribution to our plant, the Earth, by creating environmental movements. Without her, the condition of our Earth could have been worse. Still, we can see uses of chemicals in an uncontrolled way around us because many people are not aware. People are being selfish in this case. They think it is for their own good. But the reality is reverse because every living and non-living component of this planet is connected either directly or indirectly. Humans are harming themselves as well as their own community through their activities. A lot can be learned from this book. A small initiative can make a big change. It is a must for us to keep our home, the Earth healthy and let others lead their healthy life.

The conflicts of interests within the objectives of minimum capital Essay

The conflicts of interests within the objectives of minimum capital maintenance according to the european corporate law - Essay Example And the conflicts may also relate to several organizational issues, including the maintenance of the minimum capital according to the corporate legislations prevalent in the European Continent. This note presents a review of the possible conflicts, reasons for the occurrence of them together with an evaluation thereof. It has often been contended that the provisions of the various European Company Law legislations that deal with the share capital of the companies have been formed solely with the object of protecting the rights of one class of the external stakeholders namely the ‘creditors’. The need to protect the creditors from the improper use of the ‘doctrine of limited liability’ by the shareholders had been felt for quite a long time even since the time of Salmon v Salmon case that is being quoted quite often in connection with the ‘corporate veil’ of the companies. â€Å"A common rationalization of the share capital provisions is that they protect corporate creditors from the abuse of the limited liability by shareholders† (John Armour 2000) The room for such conflicts between the rights of the shareholders and the protection of the interests of the creditors had always been there in the development of corporate culture over the periods In spite of the presence of various of various company and insolvency law regulations, such conflicts endure over time and it had also necessitated a periodic review of the various company law provisions governing the shareholders’ rights. An article by Asian Development Bank (ADB) Institute opines that â€Å"the typical corporate governance framework views shareholders as the principal, and the objective of the management of a corporation is to maximize the interests of the shareholders.† The law and practices pertaining to the shareholders’ rights do not vary much between countries as they have the common interest of maximizing the interest

Risk Management Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Risk Management - Literature review Example The nature of oil spillage risk in oil exploration program The oil industry is concerned with a long history of spills on the North Slope and the probability of future spills is high. Indeed, there has been an oil spillage once a day, on average, from the time when gas and oil development began on the North Slope. Many of the tragedy involved pipelines, and improvement in the Chukchi and Beaufort would result in setting a connection of pipelines from wells to shore, till 75 miles away. In order to make the subject worse, ocean currents move the chemicals and oil hundreds of miles. Further, in the Arctic Ocean, cleaning up oil spills would lead to enormous challenges. Suppression and recovery at sea hardly ever leads to the removal of more than a comparatively small fraction of a large oil spill, i.e. only 10-15% and often significantly less. Till date, no technology subsists in order to clean up oil in the sea ice circumstances and late-season spills would stay behind until the following year. Furthermore, cold water splits down oil much more slowly than the warm water. Another impediment is the lack of infrastructure for quick reaction to a spillage. Climate change has considerably weakened the basis on which Arctic ecosystems function. Most important industrialization would add to the challenges faced by phytoplankton, at the bottom of the food chain and would generate a series of other problems. Species mainly at risk include polar bear, walruses, ringed seals, beluga and bowhead whales and coastal birds.

POLITICS OF KNOWLEDGE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

POLITICS OF KNOWLEDGE - Essay Example cesses based upon divine or supernatural intervention.1 For instance, earliest humans attributed floods, famines, and other natural occurrences to spirits and the fact that they were otherwise frustrated or angry with their behavior. However, with the advent of the scientific revolution, identifiable and statistically measurable metrics were provided that helped the average individual to understand the fact that they live in a rational and bounded universe; bounded to science and the processes that it involves. As a function of seeking to understand this scientific revolution to a more demonstrable degree, the following discussion will be based upon how rationalist and empirical epistemologists facilitated a fundamental shift from divine human-based knowledge. Firstly, and perhaps most importantly, the individuals involved within shifting epistemology towards a human-based knowledge most essentially affected the means by which stakeholders within society sought to question the status quo.2 For centuries, the church had held unchecked authority over the way in which individuals understood the world around them. To a varying degree, the overall level to which individuals sought to question this authority was relatively limited. However, with the advent of the scientific revolution, stakeholders within society, although all classes, were encouraged to question the status quo and consider whether or not scientific merit provided a rational and reasonable explanation for the processes and beliefs that they had so long been led to engage with. A secondary manner by which rationalist attempted to provide a fundamental shift from divine to human-based knowledge is with regard to the way in which they sought to use identifiable numbers and processes as a function of proving a particular point. Naturally, this is the very cornerstone of science; however, in centuries past, the league and dictated as the final understanding of whether or not a particular process or

Conflicts in the Workplace Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words - 1

Conflicts in the Workplace - Research Paper Example Managing a conflict is an important task that occurs at three levels, according to Masters and Albright According to them, first of all, an individual must know how to deal with the conflict at a personal level like when he enters a conflict with a senior, a junior, a colleague, or a client. Second, he must be able to enable others in the organization to manage their personal conflicts. This is important because those conflicts will eventually come to you taking your extra time if they are not resolved in time by the people involved. Third, he must be able to work out an effective plan or strategy that should make sure that workplace conflicts are avoided and if occur then resolved in time. Conflicts at work â€Å"reflect systemic processes and patterns in how work gets done† thus it is important to determine those patterns so that better conflict management is made possible. It is also important to discuss here why at all managing a conflict at a workplace is important and wh y medication becomes necessary. Moore defines the mediation as the involvement of a third party, the mediator, in the resolution of the conflict, where the mediator has no personal relations with any of the conflicting parties involved. The mediator does not make decisions but assists the parties to reach such a solution that is acceptable for all those involved. Doherty and Guyler suggest that â€Å"there is a direct ratio between the quality of relationships across the workplace and long-term business effectiveness and success.†

Anglo- Saxon culture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Anglo- Saxon culture - Research Paper Example It is one of the first British literature recorded epic poem (Clyne, 1987). It is the symbol of creative Anglo Saxon Art and Literature. Beowulf is an important character within the poem. This poem revealed several values of the Anglo Saxon culture. These specific values include their belief in revenge, loyalty and boasting. Values of the Anglo Saxons Beowulf is considered as one of the most epic poem of the British literature. This poem has effectively portrayed the culture and value system of Anglo Saxon. Three most important values, such as courage, honour and kinship has been thoroughly discussed in this poem. While these are all sovereign societal and cultural values, they worked collaboratively in order to reflect the clear picture of the culture. The Anglo-Saxon period is one of the oldest periods of time that availed a complex culture with stable art, culture, literature and political structure. During that period of time, culture of several societies was unsophisticated. But the Anglo Saxon culture was extremely advanced considering the time period. Anglo-Saxon time is a time that filled with effective advancements and discoveries in society, religion, art, literature, culture and government. The Anglo Saxon period was lasted for almost 600 years. During these 600 years, the Anglo Saxon brought own cultural values, beliefs and religion (Howe, 1993). They had competence in creative art, literature and architecture. The Anglo Saxon art is highly popular and recognized throughout the globe. The illustrated manuscript of Anglo Saxon culture is effectively utilized across the globe. Beowulf was their fast poem. They have effectively incorporated their culture and value system in this poem. It was the essence of warfare culture and values of Anglo Saxon that has been revealed in this poem. The poem also reveals different universal and paramount themes. These include heroic deeds, deadly personification and raw emotions like pride, greed and glory. The indivi duals within the group were quite loyal towards their leader as they believed that their leader can protect them from an enemy or other terrors in order to gain loyalty. Courtesy, generosity, courage, personal valour, loyalty, faith and fame are the major characteristics of the Anglo Saxon society. They admired the men from various tribal backgrounds for their outstanding courage (Weale, Weiss, Jager & Bradman, 2002). They believed in the significance of loyalty of a leader. They effectively valued the severe personal valour that was necessary for survival. Everybody within the cultural and societal background was aware of shortness of life. Last but not the least; everyone competed for fate and fame which is the only thing that ever lasted. The Anglo Saxon Culture as Reflected in Beowulf The social structure of Anglo Saxon consisted of several tribal units. A chieftain was the king of these units. The leader theoretically earned respect from their warriors. However, each and every culture has its own sets of customs, values and beliefs. Cultural values, beliefs and assumptions are indirectly or directly acquired throughout a lifetime. It is true that the culture is the sum of an entire group’s lay of life and there is no difference with the antique Anglo Saxon culture. The importance of values, heroes or leaders and religion effectively reflected in the Beowulf epic poem. According to their beliefs and values, the

Case IV, Black and Decker International Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

IV, Black and Decker International - Case Study Example More importantly, it is realized that the organization has the ability to establish a strong base in the world in this particular industry. Black & Decker International Question 1 Indeed, Black & Decker has been much successful in its bid to expand its operations across the world. The acquisition of the Emhart Corporation created a wave of opportunities for the organization in terms of harnessing new markets and gaining from the increased pool of employees. In any case, Grunewald's plan of creating a global business venture from this acquisition can certainly become a reality in the context of the emerging situations. It should also be remembered that the plan to expand operations following the acquisition of the Emhart Corporation brought with it a new set of challenges which had to be addressed before any positive results could be deduced. Therefore, it is imperative to note that Grunewald's plan was a positive move, considering that all organizations should always aspire to expand beyond borders. It only calls for proper and effective strategies in place in order to steer operations and realize the ultimate goals of the organization. Considering the turbulent nature of the operations in the organization, any future plans intended for the success of the organization are certainly welcome. ... Several factors certainly favor Grunewald in his decision to expand operations and establish a global venture. The lock business will enable the organization to diversify its operations and realize a wide operational base. In the same way, the globalization momentum offers a good ground for the expansion process as it will provide the basic framework for the expansion of operations (Gale, 2009). Black & Decker has a solid international base which will greatly help in building a global ground. The acquisition of Emhart creates the need for a complete restructuring of all the operations in order to facilitate progress. The door hardware industry was hitherto dominated by firms which relied on old traditions that separately emphasized security, systems and technology. In this case, the entry of Black & Decker into the market with a new set of operations will effectively enable it to win much of the market with products that are focused on the entire market segments. In order to succeed in any market, it is important to have a thorough grasp of all the operations of the market and be well acquainted with all the dimensions of competitors, customers and product needs (Laszlo & Laugel, 2000). Considering these imperatives, Black & Decker has been at the forefront in acquiring such information and will therefore effectively benefit from the knowledge. The most important aspect in this expansion is the fact that the establishment of global operations will increase the revenue base and the profit for the organization which will ultimately provide the impetus for further growth and expansion (Connor & Lake, 2002). Like any major global expansions, the global lock business will face a number of challenges in the process.

Behavioral Tools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Behavioral Tools - Essay Example On the contrary, plastic or unrelated humor also generates laughter but fails to signal anything about their connection. According to Parisi and Smith (p.217), ‘laughter between sincere friends is open, unreserved, and joyful. Laughter provides the bonding gains of increased mutual trust that permit parties to exploit profitable opportunities.’ Exemplifying this statement is one of my friends who is known to have the best sense of humor in our group. We consider this friend as lively, bubbly, and full of enthusiasm. He is also extremely smart and a go-getter. He knows the knack of converting any kind of situation or moment, whether serious, dull, tiring, and anxiety, to a lively atmosphere filled with laughter. Applying Freud’s postulation that pleasure attached to humor makes one think like a child and thereby escape the constraints of rationality and logic on cognitive functioning (Levine, 9). This is precisely my friend does most of the times, either to convince people unto doing something that they do not intend, to divert attention of individuals or groups or even to drive home the point he wants to make. Instances of potential disruption between friends and within families were also regulated through his humor by a simple distraction of thought processes and emotions of the people involved in such situations. Laughter is said to reduce tensions and naturally arising hostilities in relationships. Although the intention behind cracking jokes is to induce laughter and distract people from usual boredom or impending emotional disturbances, it may also lead to serious consequences. One such instance can be traced to the day our final results were announced. All except one of our group members had cleared the examination, and this certainly was a sad moment for all of us. In an attempt to lighten everyone’s

Controls Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Controls - Assignment Example Though, few last sets, that is, eleventh and twelveth box decrease its range. The appropriate action to be taken to enhance the control measures should focus on the third box. The third box is the one that has the highest dispersion from the normal weight and thus increase the cost of production. Control measures implemented by the firm should be revised and emphasis on the last box being packed. Two actions can be taken to keep in check the weight of the boxes. First action is to conduct a audit for the weighing equipment. The problem can be the programming set up of those equipment, which lose count on weight for the third box because it does not exceed the limit for the first and second box. The next action is to change the packaging of the third box. The material used in manufacturing the box should be of relative low weight, so that the difference will be filled by the cereal (product). The range difference is solely a failure of the weighing equipment, because it is not reasonable for a calibrate equipment to exceed the range of product weight in a give n set, for instance, a range of 0.2 ounces exceeds the upper limit by 100%. Therefore, my piece of advice to the Operations Manager is to contact technician to either calibrate the weighing equipment or to purchase another weighing equipment if the current one has become obsolete or

Idiom Comparison Essay Example for Free

Idiom Comparison Essay As a foreign student learning English, comparison idioms are really a big problem for me as well as other learners. There are over 3000 idioms in the dictionary, so understanding and memorizing all of them are a hard issue. Some students, even though, live in America or England for such a long time, they are still unable to understand what the native people are saying. In a circle of students, native English speakers speak to other native speakers differently from the foreign students. And the foreign students here is unable to follow what they are saying to each other. More than that, comparison idioms are one of major aspects that can easily discourage a person in conversation with each other if he/she does not know what to imply. If somebody ask me: Is it necessary to study an idiom like â€Å"rain like cats and dogs†? , I will asnwer Yes because idioms are part of daily speech. It makes our utterances smoothly and transmit the information to listeners in a smart way. As a matter of fact, in this essay, we will firstly find a clear view of the definition of idioms and some structures to recognize a comparison idiom, then will be a part related to contrastive analysis; that is similarities and differences between english and Vietnamese comparison idioms; lastly, some problems and solutions of studying idioms may be important to learners. Definition of idioms Definition Idioms have become very popular with the linguistic learners; however; not everyone can find the complete definition for this term. Each professor has his or her own assumption and we, the learners, have to consider much when we want to apply those idioms into study. For example, the Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, idioms were defined as: â€Å"an expression which function as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts. †. Moreover, with the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, the writer defines idioms differently: â€Å"a phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit. As we have seen, definition of idioms is quite different between the Longman Dictionary and Oxford one and maybe different from other books as well, but on reflection, they do not have much conflict, all of those share the basic idea: â€Å"they are words, phrases or expressions that cannot be taken literally; when used in everyday language, they have a meaning other than the basic one you would find in the dictionary. †. Learning them make understanding and using a language a lot easier and more fun. Structure used for comparing Although we have worked out some definitions of idioms above, most of learners are still confused with the question: â€Å"How can we identify an idiom of comparison? †. Consequently, identification should be taken into consideration so as to have an insight into different types of idioms of comparison. There are various ways of identifying based on different criteria because the exploration is quite hard and unfeasible. Here are just two main ways that have been considered most: * Identification based on component words or phrases Identification based on grammatical structure By word and phrase With this aspect, idioms of comparison can be divided into three groups: * Comparison with adjectives This kind of comparison can be constructed as the following structure: As + adjective + as + (a/an/the) Noun It is used to describe the similarities between people, things or places. However, in this structure, the similarities are exposed in a clear way, explicitly rather than other s tructure. The meaning as well as the characteristics of the adjectives are conveyed symbolically through some related things in our lives so that people can easily think of when they come across those adjectives. For example: as sharp as razor, as innocent as love, as unchangeable as the past, as jolly as a sandboy. In Vietnamese idioms, typical examples of comparison are: nhat nhu th? d? , den nhu than, d? p nhu tien†¦

A Business Plan For Nivea For Men Marketing Essay

A Business Plan For Nivea For Men Marketing Essay Mens grooming industry is one of the fastest growing markets in recent years (Euromonitor International: Mens Grooming Products Thailand, 2009). This sector is dramatically booming in Asian countries, especially Thailand. One of the leading brands in mens grooming market in Thailand is NIVEA FOR MEN brand, operated by Beiersdorf Thailand, which is selected to be the case study in this research. To be the leading brand in this fast growing industry, NIVEA FOR MEN needs to create business plan with a very strong strategic marketing plan. In general, a business sets the overall direction for the company through a business plan. The business plan is created in order that the goals and objectives of the company are to be achieved. In other words, goals and objectives of a business are the underlying foundation of the business plan (The times 100, 2008). The marketing plan is certainly a vital part of the business plan and plays active roles to achieve the targets. The strategic marketing planning process flows from a mission and vision statement to the selection of target markets, and the formulation of specific marketing mix and brand or product positioning objective (RESTREPO, N.A.). Moreover, Kotler (1994) presents the organization as a value creation and delivery sequence. To choose the value, the strategist needs to proceed to segment the market, select an appropriate market target, and develop the offers value positioning, which is known as a vital strategy of Market-oriented perspective. It seems to be unavoidable that Beiersdorf Thailand has to come up with the marketing strategies to penetrate and to be the leader in mens grooming market by doing the right segmentation, selecting the best-suited target markets, and creating the competitive brand/product positioning. In sum, the formula of segmentation, targeting, positioning, STP strategies, is the heart of strategic marketing (Kotler, 1994). The literature review is divided into two main parts. The first part focuses on the previous work on market-oriented approach, as opposed to resource-base view perspective. The second part covers the relevant work on the process of segmentation, targeting, and positioning as well as implementation of the marketing strategy. Part 1: Market-oriented perspective and Resource-based view perspective Part 2: Three essentially related topics Market Segmentation Market Targeting Market Positioning Part 1: Market-oriented perspective and Resource-based perspective This part will specifically study on market-oriented perspective, which underlies a market power imperative, through previous academic research. There are many studies about the implication of resource-based view and market-oriented perspective for a company to be successful in terms of profitability. Also, there are discussions about what perspective is the appropriate one. According to Porter (1991), a successful company has to use market-oriented approach to study the external market and then apply to internal resources. Market orientation , according to Kohli and Jaworski (1990), requires various departments in an organization to engage in activities geared towards developing an understanding of customers needs, and then develop the products to meet target customers needs (Hooley et al., 2008). In addition, Porters (1991) work relies heavily on the pursuit of advantages which are determined by firms exogenous variables that require analysis of the competitors and opportunities in the market. In Porters (1991) theory of competition strategy, he stated that the competition strategy of a firm is to seek an advantageous competitive position in the marketplace or to build up a profitable market position by drawing on varieties of factors that are critical to being competitive in an industrial sector. Following the Porters work, a recent research from Ren, Xie, and Krabbendam (2010) also studied the sustainable competitive advantage with the market-oriented perspective, which covered market innovation. Their work strongly supported the use of market-oriented perspective, with the conclusion that market-oriented approach can lead companies to success and gain more profits. Additionally, they suggested that companies analyse various marketing factors to discover new competitive advantages in order to achieve marketing innovation. However, Prahalad and Hamel (1990) and Sharkie (2003) undertake different perspective by arguing that external focus, in the view of market orientation, which requires the company to concentrate on conditions and constraints in the external environment cannot create competitive advantage for a company. Nonetheless, the resource-based view approach is believed to somehow lead to competitive advantages as it suggests that a firms unique resources and capabilities provide the basis for a strategy. In a previous study, Grant (1991) proposed a practical framework for resource-based approach to strategy formulation. The organizing framework for his study is a five-stage procedure for strategy formulation which are 1) analysing the firms resource-base, 2) appraising the firms capabilities, 3) analysing the profit-earning potential of firms resources and capabilities, 4) selecting a strategy, and 5) extending and upgrading the firms pool of resources and capabilities. Ren, Xie, and Krabbendam, (2010) had a reservation on the use of resource-base view, explaining that resources would contribute to sustainable competitive advantage just when a firm possesses valuable, scarce, inimitable and irreplaceable resources. They stated that in the real world, not every company has the resources with all of those characteristics (Ren, Xie, and Krabbendam, 2010). Part 2: The Process of Segmenting, Targeting, and Positioning 2.1 MARKET SEGMENTATION 2.1.1 Definition of Market Segmentation Market segmentation is defined as the division of a mass market into identifiable and distinct groups or segments, each of which have common characteristics and needs and display similar responses to marketing actions (Rosscraig, 2007). As the market consists of diverse types of products, customers, and personnel needs, the marketers should divide the market into distinct group of buyers in order to appropriately determine which market segment offers the best opportunity for achieving company objectives. Perner (2008) indicated that it is very unlikely that one product could meet the satisfaction of all consumers. In this perspective, a company which chose to focus on a specific group of consumers rather than customers in general would be more successful in terms of profitability. Dibb (1998) suggested that companies divide large markets into smaller segments in order to identify customers purchasing behaviors. Furthermore, Brassington and Pettitt (2003) also suggested that marketers find ways of breaking the market down into manageable parts, groups of customers with similar characteristics in terms of commonly used classifications to measure demographics, which include socio-economics, geographic and personality, and to concentrate their efforts on selecting one or more of these areas. While various literatures stated that it is essential to consider the market segmentation, MC Donald (1998) argued that market segmentation always faced the problem that many different types of customers used the same products in diverse markets. It meant that these different types of customers were in fact subsumed under the same category. Besides, Moschis (1997) also stated the problems of segmentation that the demographics change and the aging of the population change were significant factors that affected the age composition of the consumer market. Day and Wensley (1983) criticised that the market segmentation relating to the consumer market sector alone was not sufficient as it generally reflected the one-sidedness of marketing. The competitive structure was to be taken into account as it yielded the basic information on segment formation. The research from Day and Wensley (1983) concluded that the formation and selection of segments could be improved if theoretical aspects of competitor orientation are included. Dibb (1997) outlined three condition classifications which help identify potential consumers in each segment; those are as follows The expected benefits must be identifiable; Having identified these benefits, marketers must divide people into recognisable segments; One or more of the resulting segments must be accessible to the firms marketing efforts. 2.1.3 Segmentation Variables/ Market Segmentation in Consumer Markets To segment consumer markets, the market information, in terms of customer variables, product variables, and situation related variables, must be collected for further analysis. In the study of The Application of Social Class in Market Segmentation, Carman (1965) stated that social class was a major segmentation variable to divided customers into groups. However, later on in 1994, Raaij and Verhallen argued that social class cannot be used as a main segmentation variable as the society had become less vertically organised with more buying power across larger layer of society, and also concluded that social class concept had lost its unique segmentation value. They claimed that other demographic variables, such as age and education, and other psychological characteristics were more appropriate for segmentation. Raaij and Verhallen (1994)s research studied the market segments and types of people as target groups for marketing activities; market segmentation is then classified into three main levels according to the level of generality of the variables which were general, domain-specific, and brand-specific levels (figure [2-1]). Level of Variable Objective Subjective General (behavioural patterns: Person characteristics) Age Income Education Behavioural patterns General values Lifestyle Personality Domain-specific (product-class usage) Situation Frequency of use Substitution Behaviour Opinions Perception Attitude Domain-specific values Brand-specific (brand-usage) Brand loyalty (behavior) Frequency of use Action Brand Loyalty (attitude) Preference Evaluation Purchase intention Figure [2-1]: Classification of Segmentation Variables by Raaij and Verhallen (1994) However, in the late of 2000s, Rosscraig (2007) suggested that media usage and technology usage could be a concern of market segmentation approach (See Appendix [2-1]). He stated that the variables used in segmenting consumer markets could be broadly divided into three main classes including: Profile criteria: Background customer characteristics Psychological criteria: customer attitudes Behavioral criteria: Actual behavior in the market place (Figure [2-1]). Consumer Criteria Profile Psychological Behavioural Demographic Socio-economic Geographic Who and Where Lifestyle Personality Perceptions Attitudes Motives Benefit sought Why and Who Purchase/transaction Consumption/ usage Media usage Technology usage Who, How, Where, and When Figure [2-2]: Segmentation criteria in consumer markets Profile Criteria With respect to profile criteria, customer characteristics are to be examined with isolation from the specific market of interest. The profile segmentation criterion is used for identiflying the target consumers and in the consumer goods markets which are most suitable to them (Rosscraig, 2007). According to Rosscraig (2007), this simple segmentation variable includes using demographic method, socio-economic method, and geographic method. Demographic method can be determined by age, gender, ethnicity, nationality, religion, family size, generation, and etc. This method is useful in assisting media planning and marketing communications as the media selection criteria have been developed around these variables. Socio-economic method can be shaped by occupation, income level, social class, and education. Socio-economic status determines whether a consumer will be able to afford a product. Geographic location method is shaped by geographical areas; markets can be considered by country or region, by town or size of city, by population density such as urban, suburban, or rural areas, or by postcode. This approach is useful when there are clear location differences in tastes, consumption, and preferences. Moreover, this method is widely applied with direct sales operations as they can use census information to develop better customer segmentation and predictive models. The profile segmentation approach is criticised in respect of uncertainly. While one segment is based on consumer background characteristics, members of each variable may behave differently in the marketplace for various reasons while members in the different segments may seek for the same things and have the same interest in a particular product/brand (Hooley et al., 2008). In shorts, this type of segmentation variable describes who and where the consumers are, but it does not explain the basic reasons why consumers behave so. Psychological Criteria The psychological criteria draw a casual relationship between customer profiles and marketing behavior (Hooley et al., 2008). The psychological variable includes the characteristics of attitude of the customers. Attitudes to the product class and attitudes toward brands in the market have both been used as productive bases for market segmentation (Hooley et al., 2008). According to Rosscraig (2007), psychological variables used for segmenting consumer product markets include using attitudes and perceptions, lifestyle of consumers, and the types of benefit sought by customers from products and brands and their consumption choices. The use of attitudes and perceptions aims at identifying segments of respondents who view the products on offer in a similar way (Green et al., 1989). Consumer lifestyles segmentation is based on the analysis of consumers activities, interactions with others, and opinions to understand consumers individual lifestyles and patterns of behavior (Hooley et al., 2008). In 2003, Taylor Nelson Sofres (TNS) developed a UK Lifestyle Typology based on lifestyles and classified the following types of lifestyle categories which are belonger, survivor, experimentalist, conspicuous consumer, social resistor, self-explorer, and the aimless (Rosscraig, 2007). The most important benefits of consumer lifestyle research are for guiding the creative content of advertising (Hooley et al., 2008). The main idea of the benefit segmentation is that the company should provide customers with exactly what they want, based on the benefits that they derive from the products that they use, not based on how the company designs products for them (Rosscraig, 2007). According to Hooley et al. (2008) benefit segmentation tells the basic reasons why customers buy the products and why customers are attracted to the product offerings. Holley (1982) also suggested that the development in techniques of analysis make them particularly suitable for identifying benefit segments (Hooley, 1982). Overall, segmentation on the basis of psychological yields more useful basis for marketing strategy development than merely consumer profile characteristics (Hooley et al., 2008). It gets closer to the underlying reasons for behavior of consumers, so it should be used as the basis for segmenting the market (Hooley et al., 2008). However, there are some major drawbacks of Psychological segmentation techniques, one of which is that this techniques require often costly primary research and sophisticated data analysis techniques (Hooley et al., 2008). Behavioral criteria Doing segmentation on the basis of the behavior of consumers in the market is the most direct method of segmenting markets. Behavioral segmentation includes purchase behavior, consumption behavior, media usage and technology usage (Rosscraig, 2007). Purchase behavior approach concentrates on the time of purchase which is early or late in the products overall life cycle, and the patterns of purchase which is the identification of brand-loyal customers. This approach could concentrate on innovator segmentation, concerning with initial purchase. Marketers will pay high attention to innovator groups when new products are launched. Innovators as initial target segments can improve the products chances of acceptance on the market (Hooley et al., 2008). In addition, brand loyalty has been widely used as a basis for segmentation, concerning with the repeat purchasing (Hooley et al., 2008). A company may segment a market on the basis of how often a customer uses its products, categorizing these into high, medium, and low users, by usage rate (Rosscraig, 2007). The examination of usage patterns and volume consumed can pinpoint where to focus marketing activity and can be used to develop service specifications or marketing mixes for each of these groups of users (Hooley et al., 2008). Cook and Mindak (1984) have shown that product and brand usage has a major advantage over many other situation-specific segmentation variables as it can be obtained, in case of many consumer products, from secondary sources. It is very essential to understand and profile audience media usage in the process of communication planning (Chatterjee, Hoffman, and Novak (1998). Since 1950s the information of media consuming, such as television viewing, radio listening, and print reading, have been continuously collected. And in more recent years, web usage data has also been collected by market researchers to help profile web users, basing on usage characteristics (Rosscraig, 2007) (See Appendix [2-2]). Furthermore, according to Olney, Holbrook, and Batra (1991) and Holbrook and Gardners (1993), duration of use is critical measure of consumption experiences and is a useful behavioral indicator of advertising effects (See Appendix [2-3]). By following this method of segmenting, marketers can observe the behavior of consumers while utilising the products and media, and this segmentation can be used as an important source for new products ideas, new product design, and product development (Rosscraig, 2007). Additionally, marketers can then create appropriate communication themes for product promotion and can specify new markets for existing products after having the right behavioral segmentation. In recent years, behavioral segmentation has become more popular as marketers tend to study the consumers media usage and technology usage in order to further create successful advertising campaigns. To support this, it was asserted by Advertising.com(TM), Inc., a leading provider of results-based interactive marketing services to advertisers and publishers, (2004), that behavioral segmentation helped improve advertising campaign performance by revealing that targeting campaign delivery based on real-time user behaviour increases advertisers ROI by reaching the audience segments most likely to respond to an ad message. Moreover, Hallerman (2004), a senior analyst at e-Marketer, a New York-based research company, stated that the logic behind behavioural segmentation and targeting gets to the heart of the internets potential as an advertising medium. His opinion is hereby quoted: In todays world of audience fragmentation, its much more effective to reach individuals not by abstract demographics but through their actions online. 2.1.4 Segmentation in Male Grooming Products According to Mintel (1995), a study about mens toiletries industry, male grooming products and toiletries is a fast growing industry. In 1980s, the market of male grooming products started to be segmented with the development of products types, including male body spray and shower cream (Sturrock et al., 1998). According to Sturrock et al. (1998), in 1998, the market of mens products were divided into different categories of products based on consumers needs and uses, including body sprays, deodorants, mens shaving, fragrances, shampoo, shower cream, etc. Dunn (1995) and White (1995) studied characteristics of men who use male grooming products and concluded that men used grooming products as they want to increase self-care practice and self-concept. Moreover, Langer (1986) has prior stated that using mens grooming products helps encourage a concern to stay attractive. For consumer products, Milner and Fodness (1996) has done a research on product gender perception and concluded that specific gender of the products is critically important to the consumers when deciding to buy a particular product. In the segmentation process, Milner and Fodness (1996) claimed that gender is the first segmentation variable that most marketers apply for consumer products. The reason behind is that both men and women want to use the products that were specifically made for them. According to Milner and Fodness (1996), many consumers clearly are psychologically uncomfortable using products which do not seem made for them. Therefore, many companies, particularly manufacturers of consumer products, divided consumers into segments by using gender variables. In skin care industries, products are conventionally made for women. However, in the post modern era, a lot of skin care products are launched to serve male consumers (Sturrock et al., 1998). The products for male consumers are launched as a result of segmentation strategy which companies divide its consumer market into two broad categories, male and female markets. The benefit sought variable is also one of the best ways for companies to segment its market. This statement is supported by Kotler (1997) and Wedel and Kamakura (1998), stating that the real features of products have been considered the most actionable bases for segmentation. It is critically important that consumer products must offer real benefits to users to create product positioning (Blythe, 2005). In men face care market, companies and brands always divided consumers segments based on products features. For example, NIVEA FOR MEN offers wide ranges of facial cleansers with benefits of whitening, oil-control, wrinkle protection, refreshing skin, and moisturizing effects (Nivea Website, 2010). Loreal Men Expert offers benefits for facial cleansers which are whitening, anti-tightness, anti-fatigue, pure matte oil control, anti-regreasing (Loreal website, 2010). There are some researches showing that competitive brands have similar ways of segmentation (Dawes, 2006, and Fennell et al., 2003). In other words, competitive brands often appeal to consumers who have similar demographic or psychographic characteristics. Moreover, Ehrenberg et al. (2004) supported this statement by stating that different brands in the same product category tend to offer a similar range of product variants. 2.1.5 Loyalty Segmentation and Relationship Segmentation A focus on Loyalty segmentation provides strategic and tactic insights that will assist in building a strong brand (Aaker, 1996). It is necessary to build customer loyalty as it is a key success of growth for a business (Crosby et al., 2004). By having loyalty segmentation, a company can learn more about the profiles of loyal customers, and this leads to the focus at the highest value segment (Markey et al., 2007). Crosby et al. (2004) stated that the purpose of the loyalty-based segmentation is to seek to address the managerial questions as follows. Who are the most/least potential customers? How can customers be segmented according to the types of relationships they would like to have with the product/brand/company? Which loyalty segment should be targeted? What changes are required to instill the highest levels of loyalty among the targets? Crosby et al. (2004) affirm that loyalty-based segmentation is the complement of existing segmentation frameworks and it can also be used to discover new segmentation frameworks by starting with customer loyalty research. According to Aaker (1996), in focus of the loyalty segmentation, a market can be divided into the following groups. Non-customers: those who buy competitor brands or not product class users, Price switchers: those who are price sensitive, The passively loyal: those who buy out of habit rather than reasons, Fence sitters: those who are indifferent between two or more brands, and The committed: those who are committed to the brand, or a loyal customer. Loyalty segmentation can be very successful when the company can increase the number of customers who are not price switchers and who would pay more to use the brand while the fence sitter and the committed should be critically managed (Aaker, 1996). Especially in high competitive markets, companies should exercise best efforts to enhance the loyalty of the fence sitters and the committed by developing and strengthening the relationship between customers and the brand (Aaker, 1996 and Drypen, 2010). Research from Raaij and Verhallen (1994) indicates that the company should also segment its market by loyalty segmentation method. The results of the research shows that the company should move customers from the lowest level of loyalty pyramid which is overall total potential customers to the highest level which is the heavy buyers. The major marketing strategy is to increase the frequency and intensity of their purchases and to take measures to maintain customers for as long as possible (Raaij and Verhallen, 1994). This also highly relates to the relationship marketing which develop relationship between buyers and brand to stimulate purchasing. 2.2 MARKET TARGETING 2.2.1 Definition of Targeting The next step of the market segmentation in STP process is market targeting. It is the process of determining which segments should be targeted and made the focus of a comprehensive marketing programme. Moreover, in the process of market targeting, a group of customers are identified for whom the offering should be right, and to whom firms will direct the majority of its marketing resources, time, and attention (Cahill, 1997). Choosing the target market, before creating positioning and marketing mix, is a part of developing effective marketing strategy. In order to target the right group of customers, the firm has to study the needs and buying behaviours of customers in each segment. Then the firm will be able to develop marketing strategies that suit requirements of each segment. According to Cahill (1997), a target market is simply the market of submarket at which the firm aims its marketing messages. By specifying customer targets, the company will also know which segments are not the target groups so that the company will not make special effort to serve them. Cahill (1997) said that market targeting is essential because it forces the company to focus at the customers and the markets by determining the best fits between target customers and the product offerings. Kotler and Armstrong (2001) suggested that a firm make the decision how many and which segments to target in their market positioning and its decision should be based on a clear understanding of companys resources and capabilities, nature of the competition, and the characteristics of the market. The company should evaluate market segments by first collecting and analysing data on current segment sales, growth rates, and then determine which segment can constantly enable the company to receive the greatest opportunities in terms of profitability and market demands in order to target main customers. However, Wright (1996) denied statement of validity of market targeting by claiming that there was no logical reason to adopt target marketing. Wright and Esslemont (1994) studied the logical formulations of the target marketing argument and summarised that target marketing did not necessarily give the best overall market response and also does not constantly give superior return than other approaches such as mass marketing. The two main targeting strategies are suggested by Dibb (1997). They are concentration strategy, and multi-segment strategy. Concentration strategy is defined as a process that a company manages its marketing efforts towards a single target. When targeting to one single segment, a firm can better satisfy target customers needs and requirement. However, this strategy is not always effective and the company may face business failure if target customers demand for the products decline or shift to other segments Multi-segment strategy is described as a strategy that a company directs its market efforts towards two or more market targets. The company should then develop appropriate marketing mix to suit each type of target groups, by all together considering product diferrentiation, target price, distribution method, and promotional strategies. In brief, the step of the selection of the potential target market is very critical in creating and developing comprehensive marketing strategy. The robust competitive positioning will then be developed after the market targets are clearly identified and the requirements and motivations are fully examined. 2.2.3 Doing Targeting in Different Market Environment Marketers have to decide whether to target single segment or multiple segments in the product market; there are several factors affecting the managements targeting strategy decisions, including stage of maturity, industry structure, companys capabilities and resources, and opportunities for gaining competitive advantage (Cravens, and Piercy, 2009). The maturity is used as a basis for considering different targeting situations; the market target strategy will be varied in each market environment or stage of product-market maturity. Four different product-market stages, closely related to product life cycle (PLC) stages, include emerging product-market, growing product-market, mature product-market, and declining product-market. The strategists can use product life cycle model to analyse the maturity stage of the products and also industries in order to develop the strategies that should be implemented. Growing product-market Source: Spencer (2009) According to Cravens, and Piercy (2009), segments are likely to be found in the stage of growth in the product life cycle, as identifying customer segments with similar value requirements improves targeting. In growth stage of product life cycle, consumers tend to gain awareness of products and to understand the benefits of the product, and company will likely to expect a rapid sales growth and will also try to build brand loyalty and increase market share (Spencer, 2009). High growth markets is very attractive, therefore it can attract a lot of competitors who want to compete for market shares. Cravens, and Piercy (2009) revealed their finding about the market structure that at the growth stage, existing companies tend to enter new product-market as they have capabilities and resources to support the market entry,

Eco-Translatoloty: English Translation of Chinese Classics

Eco-Translatoloty: English Translation of Chinese Classics Study on the Development of English Translation of Chinese Classics from the perspective of Eco-translatology Keywords: Ecological Translation Studies, the Chinese classics, translation, traditional culture, development trend. Abstract. Eco translation studies is the use of ecological rationality, from the perspective of ecological integrity of research conducted overview of translation. Ecological Studies on translation and cultural tradition of literary translation and translation studies doctrine itself poses a challenge. It digestion for the translation of the selection process anthropocentric mindset, and construction of a new paradigm, according to this paradigm or principle, the translation of the selection is not based on their own subjective likes and dislikes translator , but rather it should be based on self-selected text translatability. This should ensure that translation studies as a scientific discipline basic premise. As a sub-discipline of translation studies, translation studies has its own ecological characteristics: both to the translation of the excavations carried out in order to peruse its translatability in the process of translation should be possible to preserve the original text in the target language of ecology balance. Introduction From the 1990s, translation studies teaching model has been more and more attention of scholars parties. But the current translation teaching mode mostly from translation theory and educational theory in two directions, from the overall concept and the system cannot analyze the concept of the existing problems. In todays era of globalization, with increasingly frequent cultural exchanges among peoples, the role of translation has become more and more indispensable. Thus the study of translation will no doubt be referred to the academic research agenda. Translation Studies, Translation Studies or, after having gone through cultural shift will be where development has become a common problem of domestic and international translation researchers think. In the past few years, through the joint efforts of scholars, or Translation Studies Translation Studies has made great progress, which finally established his position in the territory of discipline, but is moving in a relatively independent and mature Humanities and Social Sciences branch of the direction of development. Ecological translation studies should be regarded as a branch of translation studies. Translation Studies ecological ecology theory and criticism along with methods other scholars in literature is being translated rise, it is strongly traditional literary and cultural translation and translation studies doctrine itself poses a challenge. But in the contemporary translation studies, there is still a considerable number of scholars of this branch of the significance and vitality skeptical. Given the ecological Translation Studies research in fact already exists in the practice of translation studies, and therefore the relationship between ecological research or ecological criticism of this paper is to explore ecological translation studies and literature. Ecological translation studies started in 2001 is in full swing in 2009. This is a gradual process. If our system of discourse constructed as an output result of this process, then the result is bound to have its occurrence, the basis for development, the premise and conditions, etc. Consequently, many students believe that translation can only teach courses probably do not even trust the ability of teachers in translation. The new school was to explore ecological Translation Translation Teaching Model provides a new perspective. State translation theory as the basic principles and ideas of the guidance based on Darwinian adaptation / selection and proposed Translation as Adaptation and Selection, not only to emphasize the ecological integrity of the entire system of translation, also re-interpretation of the nature of translation, process and methods a series of translation phenomena. Ecological Translation Studies believes that the use of traditional translation teaching translation skills to translate the lack of practice relevance, the translator should pay attention to the text which the translation environment, in order to adapt to the ecological environment to make a dynamic selection of different degrees, such as cultural texts, authors, readers and other mutual interaction between ecological subsystems, therefore, teachers improve students language skills at the same time, but also to strengthen the cultural, religious, social and historical background of knowledge and understanding to do the translation between the various sub-ecosystems integrity and relevance, so as to make the translation theory and techniques to explain and use have a reasonable explanation.       Figure.1 Eco-translatology The Proposed Methodology Ecological Paradigm.Paradigm is a big concept. It is related to the specific field of study in a large direction and big principle is a way to study the overall concept or research mode, embodies value judgments and research methods. Ecological Studies repeatedly to locate its translation paradigm. Translation Studies in the field of ecology, said from the perspective of ecology explore Translation Theory ecological paradigm is gradually taking shape, and has been more and more recognition. The main sign is that many scholars in the study of basic concepts related issues, value judgments, research methods, and conclusions as well as the terms used are all pointing to essentially incorporate ecological Approach to Translation Theory. These aggregates ecological Translation Studies Community in recognition of Ecological translation researchers learn basic description translation, Translation Studies accepted guidelines for eco-translation studies, translation studies follow the research methods of ecological overall relevance, and their performing specific the study also used a common problem of the ecological value of the standard translation studies. These studies have not isolated, single case studies, and can be seen as joint research agreement under ecological Translation Theory Paradigm. Incidence order chain.Highlights associated chain sequence is: Given Translation is language, and language is part of culture; culture is the accumulation of human activity, and humanity is part of nature. Associated sequence chain reflects the expansion of horizons of human cognition and rational base path of progress, it is consistent with the basic laws of human cognitive evolution, both interactive and progressive nature of the feature, it can be said outlines progressive visual field of human cognition logical sequence and points to the inherent mechanism derived exhibition. The focus of translation studies from the translation itself to language, culture, human ecology, it has also been constantly repeated, interactive, just reflect this trend and its characteristics. We can see the interconnections between nature and biological translation, as well as the basic characteristics of the natural ecosystem and human social interaction common system. Ecological rationality.The so-called holistic / association, is to follow a rational ecology, the study of translation ecosystem, not just limited to the isolation of a sub-ecosystems (such as translation body ecosystems), or some stakeholders (such as translation activities funders) from an ecological rational perspective, the relevance and the need to take care of the integrity between different ecosystems. The so-called dynamic stress / balance, is to follow a rational ecology, the study of translation ecosystem, through the translation between the main object of attention, interaction translation subject and its external ecological environment influence each other, forming a translation of ecological interdependence homeostasis system. The so-called reflect the aesthetics, ecological rationality is to follow, the study of translation ecosystem, in the process of translation studies, both macro-level or micro level, has been the pursuit of aesthetic principles. Ecological rationality above has important guiding significance to build eco-system of translation studies discourse. I also believe there will be more and more rational use of theoretical ecology and applied translation studies translation studies. Translator center.One of the fundamental problems of translation theory is how to describe and explain the translator in the role. The importance of the translator in the translation process, but also makes the study of this issue has become an eternal topic translation industry. Ecological Translation Studies is the relationship between the translator and the translation environment. On the translator, he/she is an independent body, throughout the translation must be completed by the translator and the leading role of the consciousness. Translator in the different languages à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹and different cultures interacting forces interaction point, both the main body of the translation process, and is the cornerstone in Translation can be performed. Ecological Translation Studies believes that the translator is the sum of all translation process Contradictions. Translator centric concept to translate living, emotional, creative translator to the translation theory of reception, so that translation theory based on real, concrete basis translator, Translator centric concept proposed translation help make the Translator Studies research radius has been extended, and the theoretical level it has improved; the same time, the translator of self-respect, self-discipline and their own quality the increase also promoted. This orientation to the translator and the translator for the ultimate care of translation theory, its advantages become increasingly evident, so that aspect of the case studies translators centers, leading translator, translator subjects, etc. continued. Classics generation.Classics is the result of academic development, ideology and culture is a historical process evolving. In the long course of development, which includes at least three interdependent aspects: First, the spirit of thought; the second is to preserve the spirit of symbolic thought, that language; third shell material according to the language, such as paper and the like. Thing to do is to translate the spirit of ideological conversion from one language to another language, the language of its external form, internal texture is spiritual, ideological, cultural, and therefore not only to study the language translation conversion, but also the study of language TCEs after conversion. China is a country attaches great importance to the traditional history, resulting in a lot of history books, with excellent historical tradition. Dynasties will learn from the experience of the rise and fall of dynasties, learn, learn from history, past serve the present. History in China is a big subject, research has deep historical roots. Chinese culture of Confucianism and Taoism on Chinese peoples social life norms and spirit of the character played a significant role, its influence has never been interrupted, undoubtedly belongs to Chinese cultural classics in the central part, which belongs to China thinking class books. Chinese literature is a big country, rich literature, which basically reflects the spirit of Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism or even thought can be said that Chinese literature is a concrete manifestation of Chinese thought and culture, so Chinese literature or Literature Classics is also an important part of Chinese culture classics. Translation in Chinese cultural classics of the 19th century, these two books translated into most English speakers, this study focused on Chinese thought and literature class books classics into English. Although it is a part of Chinese culture classics of science and technology, pharmaceutical, and other books geography class. Classics in Translation. Translation history to be able to provide a reference for contemporary translations, is learning from history, past serve the present, get past today play a role in the translation, so translators more than a reference current. In the such a purpose, this study will be noted in the description of translation of the language level, which is the translation of the operational level, focusing on comparison between the original and the translation, focusing on translation of key terms, as well as the important passages back into Chinese to find a place between two languages and two cultures What changes, sum up experience and lessons learned for the moment Translator service; in the analysis will include more perspectives on translation and translators, readers and society, level exchanges between different cultures, and use them as research. Starting from the microscopic and macroscopic gradual transition to the two links to a comprehensive study together, and s trive to the value of the 19th Century Chinese classics into English excavated. Ecological translation.Translation mention ecological science, people may soon expect is currently in the field of literary criticism very active eco-criticism. Ecological Criticism is from the perspective of the ecological environment for critical interpretation and explanation of literary phenomena, which after nearly two decades of practice has been a gradual transition from a problem-oriented movement of a methodological guide to literary criticism methods. Institute of ecology, ecological literary criticism or pointing to the ecological environment is the theme of writing. Of course, there are various forms of writing, originality is divided into writing and variability writing or rewriting. We should acknowledge that across the boundaries of language translation is to use another language the original text rewritten or some form of rewriting, which it contains both creative ingredients, but with a reproducible composition. Translation unlike creative writing, its anthropocentric consciousness will have a distinct deconstruction, then we engaged in translation studies should also take into account the translation has the opposite characteristics of deconstruction. It can be said, deconstructive ecological translation studies is that it ruthlessly digestion on the proposed translation of the selection process anthropocentric mindset, because for anthropocentric purposes, regardless of the text to be translated if the inherent translatability, as long as the translator would be happy to contribute to its reproduction in another language. In anthropocentric mindset, political and cultural enlightenment translation function is often inappropriate to play to a point where, as a consequence, its own laws also been destroyed. Ecological principles of translation studies will be reflected in the restrictions on the role of the translator: the translator must respect the original internal ecological structure, by carefully reading and deep understanding of the original discovery of this inner translatable to achieve with the author and translator equal exchange and dialogue between the text. Conclusion In todays cultural background, we emphasize that the translation should spread Chinese culture and literature in the world and make due contributions. Translation teaching mode ecological translation studies from the perspective into the teaching objectives, curriculum resources, translate the main object, and translate market demand and other factors, with more fresh content and a broader perspective. An empirical study of the Teaching of the above shows that the pattern of the information technology (interactive, virtual simulation capabilities and modern social networking tools) and translation teaching normalized integration can help students improve their translation ability, through the translation of language learning, but also through language learning the information they need. But, in this mode, how to improve the workshop cohesion and motivation, how to strengthen the supervision and guidance on how to improve students self-monitoring and self-control, how to render more e ffective ecological interactions it is possible further explore research questions. References 1. Tymoczko, Maria. Translation in a postcolonial context: Early Irish literature in English translation. Routledge, 2016. 2. Jia, Sun. A study of the conceptual metaphors in the representation of women in the Chinese novel the song of EV erlasting sorrow and the English translation. (2015). 3. Maier, Giulio, et al. The Complete Works of Gabrio Piola: Volume I Commented English Translation-English and Italian Edition. (2014). 4. Cox, Laurence, and Alf Gunvald Nilsen. Das Ende neoliberaler Hegemonie durch soziale Bewegungen?(English translation: Reading Neoliberalism as a Social Movement from Above). Theorie und Praxis 2016 (2016): 98-105. 5. Shinde, Smita Rambhau. A Socio-cultural Study of the Marathi Play in English Translation: with Reference to Satish Alekars Mahanirvan. International Journal of Multifaceted and Multilingual Studies 3.1 (2016).

How Harper Lee explores the theme of prejudice in the novel To kill Ess

How Harper Lee explores the theme of prejudice in the novel To kill a mockingbird? Harper Lee explores the theme of prejudice in her novel, set in a small town called Maycomb. Maycomb County was, and still is, situated in the state of Alabama. Alabama is a state of The United States of America. 'To kill a mockingbird'. What does this mean and in what ways are they shown in the novel? It is a sin to kill a mockingbird because it does not do any harm or faults to a person, but just sing its heart out to them people. The voice of a mockingbird is a 'sweet' voice and they sing songs. It is like killing someone or something that is innocent and hasn't done anything to harm. This does take place in this novel by Harper Lee. The story is based on mixed cultures and how the people of Maycomb county react to the situations happening in their county and their views about it and on the whole of society. This story was set in the times of the 1930's but was written by Harper Lee in the 1960's. There are different ways of showing that a person is prejudiced. In Maycomb, people stick or stay put to their views about other people. You can show prejudice to someone by race, class, gender, wealth, sex and in the other smallest possible ways. These ways of prejudice are all shown in Maycomb County. The main point is that the white coloured people give racial comments or abuse to the black coloured people who are part of the same community. In the in 1930's, the whites where much more higher in all aspects. This is because the blacks were kept as low-paid workers and were lower classed than the white community. The blacks were treated in the worst manner or possible way a whit man could treat a black person. In Mayco... ...in the southern countries of America. There are signs in America that changes are taking place and developing. People had begun to recognize that blacks should be allowed to live equally. Hopes of changes are shown because Mr. Underwood was a racist person but in his editorial he thought it to being the 'senseless killing and slaughter of children'. The jury took longer than usual to make their decision showing changes and that Mr. Cunningham tried to influence the jury to let Tom Robinson free and keep him and innocent man when Mr. Cunningham himself was a part of the Lynch mob who wanted to hang Tom Robinson after he was put into the county jail. These are the hopes that are evidently showing and appearing in the county. Aunt Alexandra also starts to change and care more for the children. These are the changes that are taking place in Maycomb County.

Extinct Animals Research: Woolly Mammoth :: essays research papers fc

Extinct Animals Research: Woolly Mammoth   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We have learned much about the Woolly Mammoth almost more than any other dinosaur that has been identified. Due to the fact that the Woolly Mammoth so closely resembles today's elephants, care for them would most probably require most of the same factors to keep it alive. Since the Woolly Mammoth has been extinct for 4000 years, it is difficult to tell exactly what they lived on, but we can hypothesize.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Woolly Mammoth lived during the Ice Age, so if alive today, it must be kept in a tundra environment. For food, only basic tundra vegetation is necessary. Due to the thick pelt that the Woolly Mammoth has, any known Ice Age temperatures would suffice since the thick fur protects the animal in any extreme temperatures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Large enclosures would not be needed as they would be for a normal elephant since the Woolly Mammoth is only three meters high. The huge tusks would allow it to scavenge for its own food, so no special feedings would be necessary. Feedings would also be needed on a less frequent basis since the Woolly Mammoth, much like today's camels, keeps under its sloping back a thick layer of blubber as nutrition when food was not needed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The problem in keeping a creature such as the Woolly Mammoth in a zoo- like surrounding would be poachers. Due to the endangerment of such a magnificent species, poachers of pelts and ivory would most certainly be after it's huge tusks and thick furs, so it would be necessary to post guards around it's cage at all times.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A large-scale habitat would be constructed for this creature since, during the period it lived, the Pleistocene, there were no restrictions on the places it could roam to. There was nothing stopping this beast from stomping along to wherever it wanted to go. A Woolly Mammoth might find it peculiar to be stuck in a twenty foot ice field with no predators or other animals whatsoever.

Carnegie, the Selfish Philanthropist

Andrew Carnegie, The Selfish Philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, born on November 25, 1835, was a Scottish philanthropist who was one of the richest men in America in the 1900's. I completely agree with Carnegie's opinion of how the rich should donate their money toward the good of mankind before they die, but disagree with his actions toward his workers . He started working in a cotton mill making $1. 20 a week only to upgrade to $2. 20 working as a messenger boy. He eventually taught himself telegraphy and worked as Thomas A. Scott's assistant for $35 a month.He moved on to investing, with the help from his â€Å"mentor† Scott, in the Woodruff Sleeping Car Company and several small iron mills and factories. He was so successful that he was able to buy an industry of iron products. This investment brought him to buy a piece of land and build a steel manufacturing factory on it. With the millions he made, he visited Scotland often to see his family. Carnegie thought it was a good idea to put most of the money that he made back into the community. He gave his money away through public programs, which was a little overwhelming for him it seems.He cut the wages of his workers to provide more money for him to put back into his programs. There was a strike that broke out which caused his second in command to hire immigrants. This changed Carnegie's reputation. It also influenced him to retire and sell all of his holdings to J. P. Morgan for a sum of 480 Million dollars. Over the course of the rest of his lifetime, he ended up giving away 350 million dollars. He encouraged other fortune holders to do the same as him. John D. Rockefeller was one of the few that followed his Idea. Carnegie had great intentions.Carnegie believed that â€Å"a man who dies rich dies disgraced. † He explains this as the wealthy who die wealthy , did nothing with their wealth to better mankind. His thinking was influenced by Herbert Spencer, who was a social Darwinist. Carnegie ag reed with Spencer's â€Å"survival of the fittest† belief. He felt that there existed superior people who would be classified as â€Å"fittest† (this included himself). Carnegie mainly donated money to his interests in the community. His love for learning was something that fed his â€Å"charitable mind. † He funded the building of 2,509 libraries before he ended this program in 1917.His interest in music is what gave him the idea to donate pipe organs to churches despite his lack of faith in a religion. The establishment of the Carnegie Foundation was something founded by Carnegie, to continue to give after his passing, after finding out that he would not be able to spend his fortune in his lifetime. Some examples of people that agree with Carnegie would be Bill Gates and Warren Buffet. Bill Gates and Warren buffet created â€Å"The Giving Pledge† which was an agreement among 57 billionaires to donate half of their fortunes during their lifetimes.Their t houghts were intertwined with Carnegie's thoughts of giving back to the community and improving the quality of life for human beings. An example of someone that disagrees with Carnegie would be Teddy Roosevelt. Teddy Roosevelt-â€Å"if Carnegie had employed his fortune and his time to doing justice to the steelworkers who gave him his fortune, he would have accomplished a thousand times what he accomplished. † Roosevelt is referring to Carnegie giving to the good of mankind, while at the same time hurting his own workers by undermining them with less pay.If someone like Carnegie wanted to help the community and make life better for mankind, he should start with his own company. I agree and disagree with Carnegie. I agree that the rich should devote some of their riches toward the benefits of mankind before they die/as they live their life, but agree with Roosevelt's argument toward Carnegie's ruthless strategies of cutting his own workers pay just to put more money toward his â€Å"giving†. The reason that the wealthy should put some of their wealth back into the community is because that is where they made their money.Without other people to buy, sell, or trade, where would the wealthy get their wealth? This also prevents the family member or the heirs of the inheritance to be spoiled. Carnegie had a great point for doing this. For some strange reason, Carnegie cut the wages of his steel workers while at the same time putting money toward public programs that would benefit mankind. He even stated that he could put more use of that money than the workers ever could, which is ridiculously egotistical and rude. By not giving his workers a fair wage, he was hurting the economy. Our economy is based off of consumers spending their money.In my honest opinion, I think Carnegie is a selfish attention seeking mastermind. He seems very sensitive to what other people think of him. Don't get me wrong, he sounds like a nice, caring, and independent man. His intentions though, are outweighed by the means and basis for his profit: unfair and underpaid labor. The money that he made from his steel factory was ironically against his â€Å"giving† attitude that he was trying to generate. I think that after he realized that he would never have to worry about his financial situation ever again, he focused on becoming a public figure and cared about the public opinion of himself.An example to prove this would be how he reacted to the steel strikes. While he was visiting Scotland, his next in command (Henry Clay Frick) replaced all of the strikers with immigrants. This action is said to have caused the death of 10 men. Carnegie took the blame and lost positive reputation. He later retired by selling all of his assets (Probably to further the steel factory from being associated to his name) and continued to give his money away to recover from his lost reputation. (This is what I think anyway). Carnegie had the right idea to donate his mone y to a better cause, but used the wrong means to get there.I agreed with his method, but not his means. Works Cited: 1 . † Andrew Carnegie. † 2012. Biography. com 24 Oct 2012, 12:51http://www. biography. com/people/andrew-carnegie-9238756 2. Mills, Harry. â€Å"Andrew Carnegie: Master deal maker and robber baron. †Ã‚  The Naked Negotiator. The Mills Group, 24 2009. Web. 24 Oct 2012. ;http://blog. millsonline. com/2009/08/24/andrew-carnegie-master-deal-maker-and-robber-baron/;. 3. . â€Å"Spreading gospels of wealth. †Ã‚  The Economist. SANTA BARBARA | from the print edition | United States, 19 2012. Web. 24 Oct 2012. ;http://www. economist. com/node/21555605;.

Peer and Self Assessment

Assessing Learning Peer and Self Assessment Peer Assessment One of the ways in which students internalize the characteristics of quality work is by evaluating the work of their peers. However, if they are to offer helpful feedback, students must have a clear understanding of what they are to look for in their peers' work. The instructor must explain expectations clearly to them before they begin. One way to make sure students understand this type of evaluation is to give students a practice session with it. The instructor provides a sample writing or speaking assignment. As a group, students determine what should be assessed and how criteria for successful completion of the communication task should be defined. Then the instructor gives students a sample completed assignment. Students assess this using the criteria they have developed, and determine how to convey feedback clearly to the fictitious student. Students can also benefit from using rubrics or checklists to guide their assessments. At first these can be provided by the instructor; once the students have more experience, they can develop them themselves. An example of a peer editing checklist for a writing assignment is given in the popup window. Notice that the checklist asks the peer evaluator to comment primarily on the content and organization of the essay. It helps the peer evaluator focus on these areas by asking questions about specific points, such as the presence of examples to support the ideas discussed. For peer evaluation to work effectively, the learning environment in the classroom must be supportive. Students must feel comfortable and trust one another in order to provide honest and constructive feedback. Instructors who use group work and peer assessment frequently can help students develop trust by forming them into small groups early in the semester and having them work in the same groups throughout the term. This allows them to become more comfortable with each other and leads to better peer feedback. Self Assessment Students can become better language learners when they engage in deliberate thought about what they are learning and how they are learning it. In this kind of reflection, students step back from the learning process to think about their language learning strategies and their progress as language earners. Such self assessment encourages students to become independent learners and can increase their motivation. The successful use of student self assessment depends on three key elements:  ·Goal setting  ·Guided practice with assessment tools  ·Portfolios Goal setting Goal setting is essential because students can evaluate their progress more clearly when they have targets against which to measure their performance. In addition, students' motivation to learn increases when they have self-defined, and therefore relevant, learning goals. At first, students tend to create lofty long-range goals (â€Å"to speak Russian)† that do not lend themselves to self assessment. To help students develop realistic, short-term, attainable goals, instructors can use a framework like SMART goals outline shown in the popup window. One way to begin the process of introducing students to self-assessment is to create student-teacher contracts. Contracts are written agreements between students and instructors, which commonly involve determining the number and type of assignments that are required for particular grades. For example, a student may agree to work toward the grade of â€Å"B† by completing a specific number of assignments at a level of quality described by the instructor. Contracts can serve as a good way of helping students to begin to consider establishing goals for themselves as language learners. Guided practice with assessment tools Students do not learn to monitor or assess their learning on their own; they need to be taught strategies for self monitoring and self assessment. Techniques for teaching students these strategies are parallel to those used for teaching learning strategies (see Motivating Learners[->0]). The instructor models the technique (use of a checklist or rubric, for example); students then try the technique themselves; finally, students discuss whether and how well the technique worked and what to do differently next time. In addition to checklists and rubrics for specific communication tasks, students can also use broader self-assessment tools to reflect on topics they have studied, skills they have learned, their study habits, and heir sense of their overall strengths and weaknesses. An example of such a tool appears in the popup window. Students can share their self-assessments with a peer or in a small group, with instructions that they compare their impressions with other criteria such as test scores, teacher evaluations, and peers' opinions. This kind of practice helps students to be aware of their learning. It also informs the te acher about students' thoughts on their progress, and gives the teacher feedback about course content and instruction. Portfolios Portfolios are purposeful, organized, systematic collections of student work that tell the story of a student's efforts, progress, and achievement in specific areas. The student participates in the selection of portfolio content, the development of guidelines for selection, and the definition of criteria for judging merit. Portfolio assessment is a joint process for instructor and student. Portfolio assessment emphasizes evaluation of students' progress, processes, and performance over time. There are two basic types of portfolios:  ·A process portfolio serves the purpose of classroom-level assessment on the part of both the instructor and the student. It most often reflects formative assessment, although it may be assigned a grade at the end of the semester or academic year. It may also include summative types of assignments that were awarded grades.  ·A product portfolio is more summative in nature. It is intended for a major evaluation of some sort and is often accompanied by an oral presentation of its contents. For example, it may be used as a evaluation tool for graduation from a program or for the purpose of seeking employment. In both types of portfolios, emphasis is placed on including a variety of tasks that elicit spontaneous as well as planned language performance for a variety of purposes and audiences, using rubrics to assess performance, and demonstrating reflection about learning, including goal setting and self and peer assessment. Portfolio characteristics:  ·Represent an emphasis on language use and cultural understanding  ·Represent a collaborative approach to assessment Represent a student's range of performance in reading, writing, speaking, and listening as well as cultural understanding  ·Emphasize what students can do rather than what they cannot do  ·Represent a student's progress over time  ·Engage students in establishing ongoing learning goals and assessing their progress towards those goals  ·Measure each student's achievement while allowing for individu al differences between students in a class  ·Address improvement, effort, and achievement  ·Allow for assessment of process and product  ·Link teaching and assessment to learning [-;0] – http://www. nclrc. org/essentials/motivating/moindex. htm